Air Travel Safety and Probable Causes of Human Error

Air Travel Safety and Probable Causes of Human Error Should airlines have a specific criterion in hiring new applicants in order to ensure consistent quality service? Hashtag: #CertificatesOfDoom Air Travel Safety and Probable Causes of Human Error Commercial aircraft’s hull-loss accident rate is 1.5 per one million departures making it the safest form of mass transportation in the world. However, despite tremendous improvements in commercial jets technology, the safety of air travel constantly depends on human efficiency and reliability or in the qualifications of aircraft’s pilot and crew. UK statistics of transport accidents in 2003 suggest that there are 20 times more people being killed in car accidents than passengers of commercial airlines each year. Traveling  by air is also 4 times safer than rail travel. In fact, the average fatality for every 12.5 million passengers carried by UK airlines is one. Moreover, airline passenger’s overall survivability rate in the year 2000 was already 95.7% and probably much higher today due to continuous improvement in aircraft’s design, operation, maintenance, and air traffic control. Except for human error, this makes commercial airlines the fastest, reliable, and safest type of mass transportation in the world. Human error is the main contributor to aircraft accidents. In fact, despite the presence of automated flight management systems and adaptive cruise control in cockpits, the common cause of aircraft accidents is human errors. Specifically, these are pilot’s intentional violation of operating procedures, incorrect reasoning, slips or mistakes caused by fatigue, and wrong response to a critical situation. Slips caused by fatigue are easy to accept, but breaking the rules and making faulty responses and reasoning is a quite strange for a well-educated, highly trained, and adequately experienced aviation pilot. Are these pilots really skilled and competent or holders of #CertificatesOfDoom from an aviation college in Nairobi? Critical Essay Airlines Criterion and Academically Incompetent Pilots Airlines have a  specific criterion in hiring new applicants in order to ensure consistent quality service. On the other side of the coin, it is also a precautionary measure to prevent entry of â€Å"half-baked† pilots or those with poor quality aviation training, less piloting experience, and insufficient formal education. It is quite evident that an ideal airline pilot is one with adequate formal education, well trained and with long hours of flight experience. A pilot holding a deceitfully acquired academic certificate or #CertificatesOfDoom, therefore, has no business whatsoever in the aviation industry. The recent Twitter expose about some aviation graduates that bought their degrees and certificates in various fields of Aeronautics, is a sad indication that some pilots of commercial airlines are academically incompetent. Another is the shocking reality that these certificates were sold by the institution that we all hoped to teach good values and promote learning in young people. Free Sample Essay about Travelling Academically incompetent pilots must not be allowed to fly or work in the aviation industry. In particular, those who acquired their degrees without attending the class are dangerous people with no respect for human life. The aviation industry should keep them out or terminate those who are already in the industry. In time, their lack of academic knowledge will take its toll on their ability to reason, make right decisions, and correctly respond to life-threatening situations. Remember, human error is not only responsible for significant financial losses but to the thousands of people who were killed by one man’s incompetence.

Macro and Micro Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Macro and Micro Economics - Essay Example Unemployment is mostly involuntary that is the person was employed before but is now out of work without his or her wish of being out of work (Walters, 2000;12). This perspective implies that the person though out of job is actually looking for one but the job is currently unavailable. According to Gupta’s (2004; 31) definition of unemployment, unemployment cannot be defined as every person who is not engaged in productive activity. According to him there are people who are sick and children who are too young to work but this does not mean that they want to engage in any worthwhile activity because either they cannot find one or they do not want to engage in one; this means they cannot be classified as being unemployed therefore the correct perspective of unemployment would be the number of productive workforce that are involuntary out of work. Most of the common unemployment forms are brought by the lack of demand of labour in most of the companies in any given economy. Unemp loyment can be divided into many categories with the first group being Voluntary while the second type of unemployment will be involuntary (Lindbeck, 1993; 77). The said group can also be divided further into smaller groups depending on the cause of unemployment. When it comes to voluntary unemployment one of the major causes is frustrations; when a person fails to get the coveted job for a long period of time the individual might opt out of the work force, this is done in order for the person to avoid embarrassment and also the stress associated with the process of looking for a job. Therefore the person can be classified to have left the work force and employment through frustration thus unemployment through frustration. Another cause of voluntary unemployment is when the person has been working at a particular firm and due to structural change the company chooses to pay some employees in order to leave the job on a good will basis (Asimakopulos, 1991; 123). In terms of involuntar y unemployment there exist different categories with the most common types being classical, structural or mismatch, frictional also known as turnover and cyclical types of unemployment (Anderson, 1977; 29). In cases where the wage rates are not flexible there will be a further cause of unemployment called the wait. Cyclical or demand deficient type of unemployment refers to a situation where the rate of employment is entirely dependent on employment rates. According to Gillespie (2007; 31), a slow demand throughout the economy leads to deficiency. Case in point is where there is a recession or there is a negative GDP growth. Whenever there is a negative demand or a low demand for goods and services then the demand for labour will be low therefore less employees will be needed thus more unemployment. Keynesian Theory falls under the cyclical type of unemployment; Keynes (1930) explains that in the short run, productivity activities are influenced by the total spending in the economy which is the summative demand (Hein, 2011;189). This does not mean that the total spending of an economy is equal to the total productive capacity of the economy which is the summative supply. In its place it is subjected by a multitude of aspects and every now and then performs unsteadily, touching production, employment and inflation. In the structural unemployment, it transpires when the structure of economy is altered (Snower, 1997; 64). Case in point can be where an industry loses its international competitiveness with the arrival of new global competitors. The industry will

Strategic Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Strategic Management - Essay Example 8 References 9 Appendix 10 Introduction NewsCorp can be characterized as a dynamic multinational organization, having been expanded rapidly in countries worldwide; the current performance of the firm is significant – see graph 1 (Appendix). In 2010, the firm continued its growth by developing a series of critical agreements, such as the increase of its ownership in Sky Deutschland to 45%, the development of a joint venture with CME Group inc. and so on (Annual Report, p.17). In 2010, the profits of the firm were estimated to 32,778 millions, increased by 8% compared to 2009 (Annual Report, p.18). Apart from its geographic expansion, the firm’s major characteristic has its ability to enter new industrial sectors. However, it would be stated that its growth has been mostly based on its profits from newspapers. The above view is based on the following fact: in accordance with the case study, the profits from the Australian newspaper, The News – established by the fa ther of Murdoch in 1923 – allowed the expansion of NewsCorp in the global market (p.713 case study); In the above context, the level at which the involvement of NewsCorp in the newspapers sector has offered the firm a competitive advantage in the global market has to be further examined. ... In the context of the Five Forces model of industry competition (Figure 1, Appendix) a firm that aims to compete its rivals is likely to face five different forces, including: the threat of similar (substitute) products/ services, the threat of new firms entering the particular industry, the power of customers to ask for lower prices, the power of suppliers to ask for higher payment of the material/ services provided and the competition from existing rivals (Porter 1998). In the case under examination, the increase of TNC’s competitiveness towards its rivals and the further growth of the firm in the global market were achieved, mostly, through the following strategies: the expansion of the firm in the areas of national and local newspapers – in this way the competition within each market was minimized; for instance, in Australia, the firm established the country’s ‘first national newspaper, the Australian, along with 20 provincial newspapers’ (p.713 case study), a fact that offered to the firm the hegemony in the Australian market; in this way also, the firm achieved to secure an important source of funds for supporting its expansion in the international market; another, important, competitive strategy of the firm has been the acquisition of key competitors in the international market; an indicative example of this type is the acquisition of the News of the World – a British publishing company which was already well developed in the local market. The competitive strategy of NewsCorp should be criticized using the Five Forces model of Porter – to see how the strategic initiatives of Murdoch have been, actually, aligned with the existing academic theories on competitiveness in the context of

Ecology and the Biosphere

Ecology and the Biosphere Ch. 50 (Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere) I. Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the environment. Events that occur in the framework of ecological time translate into effects over the longer scale of evolutionary time. The environment of any organism includes two components. Abiotic, or nonliving, components chemical and physical factors such as temperature, light, water, and nutrients. Biotic, or living, components all the organisms, or the biota, that are part of the individuals environment. Ecology can be divided into areas of study ranging from the ecology of individual organisms to the dynamics of ecosystems and landscapes. Organismal ecology: Can be subdivided into the disciplines of physiological ecology, evolutionary ecology, and behavioral ecology. Concerns how an organisms structure, physiology, and behavior meet the challenges posed by the environment Population ecology: Concentrates mainly on factors that affect how many individuals of a particular species live in an area. Population group of individuals of the same species living in a particular geographic area. Community ecology: Deals with the whole array of interacting species in a community. Community all the organisms of all the species that inhabit a particular area Ecosystem ecology: The emphasis in this ecology is on energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components. Ecosystem all the abiotic factors in addition to the entire community of species that exist in a certain area. Landscape ecology: Deals with arrays of ecosystems and how they are arranged in a geographic region. Patchiness is an environmental characteristic where a landscape or seascape consists of a mosaic of different types of patches. Focuses on the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms among the ecosystem patches. The biosphere is the global ecosystem, the sum of all the planets ecosystems. II. Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species Biogeography is the study of the past and present distribution of individual species, in the context of evolutionary theory It provides a good starting point for understanding what limits the geographic distribution of a species. Factors limiting a species distribution may include: Dispersal. Behavior. Biotic factors. Abiotic factors. Dispersal is the movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or from their area of origin One way to determine if dispersal is a key factor limiting distribution is to observe the results of transplants of a species For a transplant to be considered successful, organisms must survive and reproduce in the new area If it is successful, the potential range of the species is larger than its actual range. Behavior and habitat selection may limit distribution. Plants may select their habitats by producing seeds that germinate only under a restricted set of environmental conditions Female mosquitoes select specific habitats for oviposition, or the depositing of eggs Biotic factors that limit the distribution of a species may include: Predation Disease Parasitism Competition Abiotic factors may also limit distribution. Environmental temperature is an important factor in the distribution of organisms because of its effect on biological processes Cells may rupture if the water they contain freezes Proteins of most organisms denature at temperatures above 45 degrees C. Water availability is another important factor. Freshwater and marine organisms live submerged in aquatic environments. Terrestrial organisms face a nearly constant threat of desiccation Sunlight provides the energy that drives all ecosystems, although only plants and other photosynthetic organisms use this energy source directly Wind amplifies the effects of environmental temperature on organisms by increasing heat loss due to evaporation and convection It also contributes to water loss in organisms by increasing the rate of evaporative cooling and transpiration The physical structure, pH, and mineral composition of rocks and soil limit the distribution of plants Temperature, water, sunlight, and wind are the major components of climate Global climate patterns: Earths curved shape causes latitudinal variation in the intensity of sunlight Sunlight strikes the tropics most directly, and the most heat and light are delivered there Earths tilt causes seasonal variation in the intensity of solar radiation. June solstice Northern Hemisphere tilts toward sun; summer begins March equinox equator faces sun directly; 12 hours of daylight and darkness December solstice Northern Hemisphere tilts away from sun; winter begins September equinox equator faces sun directly Intense solar radiation near the equator initiates a global pattern of air circulation and precipitation Air flowing close to Earths surface creates predictable global wind patterns Macroclimate are patterns on the global, regional, and local level Ocean currents influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or cooling overlying air masses, which may then pass across the land. Mountains have a significant effect on the amount of sunlight reaching an area, as well as on local temperature and rainfall. In addition to the global changes in day length, solar radiation, and temperature, the changing angle of the sun affects local environments During the summer and winter, many lakes in temperate regions are thermally stratified, or layered vertically according to temperature Lakes undergo a semiannual mixing of their waters as a result of changing temperature profiles, a process called turnover. Microclimate are very fine patterns, such as those encountered by a community underneath a log Many features in the environment influence microclimates by casting shade, affecting evaporation from soil, and changing wind patterns. III. Abiotic and biotic factors influence the structure and dynamics of aquatic biomes Biomes are major types of ecological associations that occupy broad geographic regions of land or water Aquatic biomes account of the largest part of the biosphere. These biomes are physically and chemically stratified There is sufficient light for photosynthesis in the upper photic zone Little light penetrates in the lower aphotic zone At the bottom, the subtrate is called the benthic zone It is made up of sand and organic and inorganic sediments It is occupied by communities of organisms collectively called benthos A major source of food for the benthos is dead organic matter called detritus Thermal energy from sunlight warms surface waters to whatever depth the sunlight penetrates. In the ocean and in most lakes, a narrow stratum of rapid temperature change called a thermocline separates the more uniformly warm upper layer from more uniformly cold deeper waters Major aquatic biomes: Lakes are standing bodies of water covering thousands of square kilometers Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient poor and generally oxygen rich Eutrophic lakes are nutrient rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice-covered in winter and in the deepest zone during summer The littoral zone is the shallow, well-lighted waters close to shore The limnetic zone is further away from shore and is too deep to support rooted aquatic plants A wetland is an area covered with water for a long enough period to support aquatic plants The most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is current Headwater streams are generally cold, clear, turbulent, and swift Rivers are generally warmer and more turbid, since they carry more sediment than their headwaters. An estuary is a transition area between river and sea They have very complex flow patterns An intertidal zone is periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shores The oceanic pelagic biome is a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents Reef building corals are limited to the photic zone of relatively stable tropical marine environments with high water clarity A coral reef, which is formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals, develops over a long time on oceanic islands The marine benthic zone consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the costal, or neritic, zone and the offshore, pelagic zone. Organisms in the very deep benthic or abyssal, zone are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high water pressure IV. Climate largely determines the distribution and structure of terrestrial biomes A climograph is a plot of the temperature and precipitation in a particular region Vertical stratification is an important feature of terrestrial biomes In many forests, the layers consist of the upper canopy, the low-tree stratum, the shrub understory, the ground layer of herbaceous plants, the forest floor, and the root layer Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other, without sharp boundaries The area of intergradation is called an ecotone and may be wide or narrow Major terrestrial biomes: In tropical rain forests, rainfall is relatively constant, and in tropical dry forests, precipitation is highly seasonal Tropical forests are stratified Deserts occur in a band near 30 degrees north and south latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents Precipitation is low and highly variable Temperature is variable seasonally and daily The savanna is warm year-round, but with somewhat more seasonal variation than in tropical forests Chaparral occurs in midlatitude coastal regions on several continents It is dominated by shrubs and small trees, along with a high diversity of grasses and herbs Temperate grasslands cover parts of South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, Uruguay, Russia, and North America. The dominant plants are grasses and forbs The northern coniferous forest, or taiga, is the largest terrestrial biome on earth Precipitation ranges from 30 to 70 cm, and periodic droughts are common Cone-bearing trees dominate these forests A mature temperate broadleaf forest has distinct, highly diverse, vertical layers. Tundra covers expansive areas of the Arctic, amounting to 20% of Earths land surface A permanently frozen layer of soil called permafrost generally prevents water infiltration. Ch. 51 (Behavioral Ecology) I. Behavioral ecology extends observations of animal behavior by studying how such behavior is controlled and how it develops, evolves, and contributes to survival and reproductive success. II. Behavioral ecologists distinguish between proximate and ultimate causes of behavior. Behavior traits are also a part of an animals phenotype It includes muscular as well as nonmuscular activity Is everything that an animal does and how it does it. Learning is also considered a behavioral process. Proximate questions focus on the environmental stimuli that trigger a behavior, as well as the genetic, physiological, and anatomical mechanisms underlying a behavioral act These are how questions Ultimate questions address the evolutionary significance of a behavior These are why questions Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, particularly in natural environments. Tindenbergen suggested four questions that must be answered to fully understand any behavior What is the mechanistic basis of the behavior, including chemical, anatomical, and physiological mechanisms? How does development of the animal, from zygote to mature individual, influence behavior? What is the evolutionary history of the behavior? How does the behavior contribute to survival and reproduction? The fixed action pattern is a sequence of unlearned behavioral acts that Is essentially unchangeable and is carried to completion A FAP is triggered by an external sensory stimulus known as a sign stimulus Imprinting is a type of behavior that includes both learning and innate components and is generally irreversible A sensitive period is a limited phase in an animals development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned III. Many behaviors have a strong genetic component. Biologists study the ways both genes and the environment influence development of behavioral phenotypes. Nature and nurture Innate behaviors are behavior that is developmentally fixed and are under strong genetic influence Kinesis is a simple change in activity or turning rate Taxis is an oriented movement toward or away from some stimulus. Trout automatically swim or orient themselves in an upstream direction, exhibiting rheotaxis Bird migration is partly under genetic control. Animal communication consists of the transmission of, reception of, and response to signals A signal is a behavior that causes a change in another animals behavior It is an essential element of interactions between individuals Many animals that communicate through odors emit chemical substances called pheromones They are typically very concentrated Many animals also communicate by auditory communication A variety of mammalian behaviors are under relatively strong genetic control. Research has revealed the genetic and neural basis for the mating and parental behavior of male prairie voles. IV. Environment, interacting with an animals genetic makeup, influences the development of behaviors. Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that the type of food eaten during larval development strongly influences later mate selection by Drosophila mojavensis females Cross-fostering studies of California mice and white-footed mice have uncovered an influence of social environment on the aggressive and parental behaviors of mice. Learning is the modification of behavior based on specific experiences. Special learning is the modification of behavior based on experience with the special structure of the environment This makes use of landmarks, or location indicators A cognitive map is an internal representation or code of the spatial relationships between objects in an animals surroundings Associative learning is the ability of many animals to associate one feature of the environment with another Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning in which an arbitrary stimulus is associated with a reward or punishment operant conditioning is called trial-and-error learning Cognition is the ability of an animals nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information gathered by sensory receptors. The study of animal cognition, called cognitive ethology, examines the connection between an animals nervous system and its behavior. Habituation is a loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information V. Behavioral traits can evolve by natural selection. When behavioral variation within a species corresponds to variation in environmental conditions, it may be evidence of past evolution An example of genetically based variation in behavior within a species is pretty selection by the garter snake Thamnophis elegans Foraging is behavior associated with recognizing, searching for, capture, and consuming food Laboratory studies of Drosophila populations raised in high and low density conditions show a clear divergence in behavior linked to specific genes D. melangogaster living at low population density followed a foraging path shorter than that of D. melanogaster living at high population density VI. Natural selection favors behaviors that increase survival and reproductive success. Optimal foraging theory states that natural selection should favor foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging and maximizing the benefits. How mate choice enhances reproductive success varies, depending on the species mating system. In promiscuous mating, there are no strong pair bonds or lasting relationships In monogamous mating, one male mates with one female In polygamous mating, an individual of one sex mates with several of the other In polygyny, one males mates with many females In polyandry, one female mates with several males Males competition for mates is a source of intrasexual selection that can reduce variation among males agonistic behavior is an often ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains access to a resource, such as food or mates Game theory provides a way of thinking about evolution in situations where the fitness of a particular behavioral phenotype is influenced by other behavioral phenotypes in the population. VII. The concept of inclusive fitness can account for most altruistic social behavior. On occasion, animals behave in altruistic ways that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of the recipient of the behavior. For example, if a squirrel sees a predator approach, the squirrel gives off an alarm, alerting unaware individuals but increasing the risk to itself This behavior can be explained by the concept of inclusive fitness It is the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to produce offspring The three key variables in an act of altruism are the benefit to the recipient (B), the cost to the altruist (C), and the coefficient of relatedness (r). Hamiltons rule states that rB > C Kin selection favors altruistic behavior by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives Altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future, an exchange of aid called reciprocal altruism. Social learning forms the roots of culture, which can be defined as a system of information transfer through observation or teaching that influences the behavior of individuals in a population. Male choice copying is a behavior in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others Human culture is related to evolutionary theory in the discipline of sociobiology, whose main premise is that certain behavior characteristics exist because they are expressions of genes that have been perpetuated by natural selection. Ch. 52 I. Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to the environment, including environmental influences on population density and distribution. A population is a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area II. Dynamic biological processes influence population density, dispersion, and demography. Population density, the number of individuals per area or volume, results from the combination of births, deaths, immigration, and emigration. Dispersion is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population Environmental and social factors influence the spacing of individuals In clumped patterns, individuals are aggregated in patches In uniform patterns, individuals are evenly spaced Animals often exhibit uniform dispersion as a result of antagonistic social interactions, such as territoriality, the defense of a bounded physical space against encroachment by other individuals In random dispersion, individuals are unpredictably spaced, and the position of each individual is independent of others This occurs in the absence of strong attraction or repulsions among individuals of a population Populations grow from births and immigration and shrink from deaths and emigration Immigration is the influx of new individuals from other areas Emigration is the movement of individuals out of a population Demography is the study of the vital statistics of populations and how they change over time Of particularly interest to demographers are birth rates and how they vary among individuals and death rates Life tables are age-specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population the best way to construct one is to follow the fate of a cohort, a group of individuals of the same age, from birth until all are dead A survivorship curve is a plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort still alive at each age Idealized survivorship curves: Type I curve is flat at the start, reflecting low death rates during early and middle life, then drops steeply as death rates increase among older age groups Type II curves are intermediate, with a constant death rate over the organisms life span Type III curve drops sharply at the start, reflecting very high death rates for the young, but the flattens out as death rates decline for those individuals that have survived to a critical age Reproductive tables, or fertility schedules, are age specific summaries of the reproductive rates in a population III. The traits that affect an organisms schedule of reproduction and survival from birth through reproduction to death make up its life history. They are evolutionary outcomes reflected in the development, physiology, and behavior of an organism. Semelparous organisms reproduce a single time and die. When the survival rate of offspring is low, as in highly variable or unpredictable environments, this is favored Iteroparous organisms produce offspring repeatedly. When environments are dependable and where competition for resources may be intense, this is favored. Life history traits such as brood size, age at maturity, and parental caregiving represent trade-offs between conflicting demands for limited time, energy, and nutrients. IV. The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment. The per capita birth rate (b) is the number of offspring produced per unit time by an average member of the population The per capita death rate (m) is the number of individuals of a population that die per unit time The per capita rate of increase (r), or a populations growth rate, equals birth rate minus death rate. R = b m Growth occurs when r>0 and decline occurs when r C Kin selection favors altruistic behavior by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives Altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future, an exchange of aid called reciprocal altruism. Social learning forms the roots of culture, which can be defined as a system of information transfer through observation or teaching that influences the behavior of individuals in a population. Male choice copying is a behavior in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others Human culture is related to evolutionary theory in the discipline of sociobiology, whose main premise is that certain behavior characteristics exist because they are expressions of genes that have been perpetuated by natural selection. Ch. 52 I. Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to the environment, including environmental influences on population density and distribution. A population is a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area II. Dynamic biological processes influence population density, dispersion, and demography. Population density, the number of individuals per area or volume, results from the combination of births, deaths, immigration, and emigration. Dispersion is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population Environmental and social factors influence the spacing of individuals In clumped patterns, individuals are aggregated in patches In uniform patterns, individuals are evenly spaced Animals often exhibit uniform dispersion as a result of antagonistic social interactions, such as territoriality, the defense of a bounded physical space against encroachment by other individuals In random dispersion, individuals are unpredictably spaced, and the position of each individual is independent of others This occurs in the absence of strong attraction or repulsions among individuals of a population Populations grow from births and immigration and shrink from deaths and emigration Immigration is the influx of new individuals from other areas Emigration is the movement of individuals out of a population Demography is the study of the vital statistics of populations and how they change over time Of particularly interest to demographers are birth rates and how they vary among individuals and death rates Life tables are age-specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population the best way to construct one is to follow the fate of a cohort, a group of individuals of the same age, from birth until all are dead A survivorship curve is a plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort still alive at each age Idealized survivorship curves: Type I curve is flat at the start, reflecting low death rates during early and middle life, then drops steeply as death rates increase among older age groups Type II curves are intermediate, with a constant death rate over the organisms life span Type III curve drops sharply at the start, reflecting very high death rates for the young, but the flattens out as death rates decline for those individuals that have survived to a critical age Reproductive tables, or fertility schedules, are age specific summaries of the reproductive rates in a population III. The traits that affect an organisms schedule of reproduction and survival from birth through reproduction to death make up its life history. They are evolutionary outcomes reflected in the development, physiology, and behavior of an organism. Semelparous organisms reproduce a single time and die. When the survival rate of offspring is low, as in highly variable or unpredictable environments, this is favored Iteroparous organisms produce offspring repeatedly. When environments are dependable and where competition for resources may be intense, this is favored. Life history traits such as brood size, age at maturity, and parental caregiving represent trade-offs between conflicting demands for limited time, energy, and nutrients. IV. The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment. The per capita birth rate (b) is the number of offspring produced per unit time by an average member of the population The per capita death rate (m) is the number of individuals of a population that die per unit time The per capita rate of increase (r), or a populations growth rate, equals birth rate minus death rate. R = b m Growth occurs when r>0 and decline occurs when r

Provoking play Essay

To our surprise, when Eddie talks to Louis and Mike, they mention Rodolfo and about how funny they think he is. They aren’t really talking about it as a compliment, in fact, it is an indirect insult. We think this because the stage directions tell us how hysterical Louis and Mike find the conversation. ‘He’s always making little remarks, like y’know? ‘ This may surprise the audience because we automatically think that Eddie is just jealous and making excuses for his jealousy. But when we hear it from some one else, as indirect as it may be, our opinions may altar slightly as there may be slight truth behind what he is saying. When Catherine returns from her date with Rodolfo, Eddie talks to her. He indicates that she will have to choose, and makes her feel guilty-‘don’t break my heart Katie. ‘ Eddie then tells Catherine how he thinks Rodolfo is using her just for citizenship-‘He marries you, he has the right to be an American citizen. ‘ Catherine is obviously very hurt by this, ‘I don’t believe it and I wish to hell you’d stop it! ‘ Our expectations as the audience have grown, there is conflict between Catherine and Eddie now, the two that were so close. Disaster becomes a clear idea. Eddie has lost the control he once had over Catherine, she doesn’t listen to him anymore and has her own opinions. After Catherine and Eddies fight, Beatrice talks to Catherine. She tells her that Eddie is not her father and that he shouldn’t tell her what to do. ‘He’s not your father, Catherine. I don’t understand what’s going on here. ‘ Beatrice brings up Catherine’s immaturity towards Eddie. Catherine-‘He thinks I’m a baby. ‘ Beatrice-‘Because you think you’re a baby. ‘ She discreetly tells Catherine she is jealous of her-‘You think I’m jealous of you honey? ‘ ‘Well you should have thought of it before†¦ but I’m not. ‘ Expectations in the audience are created because Beatrice is suffering in her relationship with Eddie, looking at Catherine and Rodolfo make her happy and Beatrice will favour Catherine in disputes between Eddie and Catherine. Eddie goes to see Alfieri. After he has explained the problem, he asks about law advice-he is taking this situation very seriously. Eddie tells Alfieri that he thinks Rodolfo is gay-‘The guy aint right. ‘ ‘†¦ he makes a new dress. I mean he looked so sweet there-like an angel-you could kiss him he was so sweet. ‘ Alfieri bluntly tells Eddie that the only illegal thing happening here is, ‘the way in which they entered the country. ‘ Eddie refuses to touch upon that boundary, ‘Oh, Jesus, no, I wouldn’t do nothin’ about that. ‘ Alfieri then says ‘She wants to get married, Eddie. She cant marry you can she? ‘ Stage directions describe Eddie as furious at this remark. Alfieri concludes this scene by telling the audience he can see the outcome unfolding-‘I knew where he was heading for, I knew he was going to end. ‘- a very accurate prediction. By this point expectations of disaster and tragedy in the audience are high. Alfieri has just told the audience he knew Eddie was going to end. That is a vital point in his speech, it tells us he is going to literally end. So far, in the play we have seen how important Catherine and Eddie’s relationship is. We have realised that Eddie has feelings for Catherine, more than what he likes to believe himself. We have established that Eddie is very against the idea of Catherine and Rodolfo, because of his jealousy and fear of loosing Catherine. All the characters are at the house for a family meal. After they all discuss some of the places Rodolfo and Marco have been. In conversation Eddie gently warns Rodolfo about Catherine-‘It aint so free here either Rodolfo. ‘ ‘But in your town you wouldn’t just drag off some girl without permission, I mean. You know what I mean Marco, it aint that much different here. ‘ They have a small argument. Catherine then asks Rodolfo to dance, in spite of Eddie. Rodolfo says no at first, in deference to Eddie. Eddie mentions Rodolfo’s many talents, hinting he thinks he is gay-‘But if I could cook, if I could sing, if I could make dresses, I wouldn’t be on the waterfront. (He has been unconsciously been twisting the newspaper into a tight roll. They are all regarding him now; he senses he is exposing an issue and is driven on. ) I would be someplace else. I would be like in a dress store. (He has bent the piece of paper and it suddenly tears in two). ‘ This long piece of text has significant stage directions. They show how Eddie’s anger doesn’t shine through verbally, but physically. He is sometimes unable to express his feelings. Eddie then offers to teach Rodolfo boxing, possibly putting on a brave act for Catherine, trying to bond with Rodolfo. His real motive is clear to us, the audience†¦ he wants to take out his anger, he wants to hit Rodolfo. He also wants to show he is much stronger than Rodolfo, he wants to prove something to himself and to almost scare Rodolfo. Rodolfo shows how he does have respect for Eddie-‘I don’t want to hit you Eddie. ‘ Eddies ends up hitting Rodolfo-what he wanted. Marco has become aware of what is happening between Rodolfo and Eddie now and is not too pleased. He steps in to show Eddie who is really the strongest. Marco challenges Eddie to a chair-lifting contest. Marco wins and conflict between Marco and Eddie has now begun. Stage directions tell us, ‘Marco is face to face with Eddie, a strained tension gripping his eyes and jaw, his neck stiff, the chair raised like a weapon above Eddies head-and he transforms what might appear like a flare of warning into a smile of triumph, and Eddies grin vanishes a he absorbs his look. ‘ To the audience Marco’s look is warning Eddie. Marco is wary of Eddie now and will protect Rodolfo as best he can. This last scene has added to the expectations of this audience because Eddie has had conflict with every main character, tragedy is even more inevitable. Act two begins now, opening with Catherine and Rodolfo. Catherine discreetly asks Rodolfo if he is just marrying her for citizenship. She asks him if they could live in Italy to see how he reacts. He reacts badly, he doesn’t want to know and thinks Catherine is mad. She then tells Rodolfo how she is scared of Eddie, then asks him straight. ‘Would you still want do it if it turned out we had to live in Italy? ‘ Rodolfo is absolutely furious by this thought-‘My heart dies to look at you, why are you so afraid of him? ‘ Rodolfo tells Catherine that Eddie is in the wrong and that she needs to let go of him as well-‘If I take in my hands a little bird. And she grows and wishes to fly. But I will not let her out of my hands because I love her so much, is that right for me to do? ‘ Rodolfo and Catherine sleep together. This is not openly shown but the audience can predict that it happens – further tragedy for Eddie. Eddie returns home shortly after, he is drunk-stage directions state ‘ he is unsteady-drunk. ‘ As he enters he soon realises what has happened and orders Rodolfo to, ‘Pack it up. Go ahead. Get your stuff out of here. ‘ But Catherine then says she is going as well. Eddie, losing all meaning finds the one way he feel she can express his feelings for Catherine, he kisses her. But in a pathetic attempt to show Rodolfo as gay, Eddie kisses him. Stage directions-‘†¦ she strives to free herself, he kisses her on the mouth. ‘ ‘Eddie pins his arms laughing and suddenly kisses him. ‘ Again Eddie warns Rodolfo to leave and refuses to let Catherine go. By this point in the play the audience will have probably realised tragedy is not far off. Eddie did the most surprising and astonishing thing he could have done, he kisses Catherine because it is the only way he feels he can express his feelings. But instead it destroys Eddie and Catherine’s relationship completely. Eddie pays Alfieri a final visit. Again Alfieri tells him that he has no rights and there is no law. He tells Eddie he has to let go-‘Let her go and bless her (A phone booth begins to glow on the opposite side of the stage; a faint, lonely blue. )’ This in my opinion is the most important piece of stage direction. It creates an expectation in the audience unlike any other quote. It tells the audience immediately this telephone plays a role. Eddie has become desperate. The expectations are obvious, he is going to report Rodolfo and Marco to immigration. The audience think back to the story of Vinny and hoe tragic his story was, he was rejected by his family. The audience predict this is what will happen to Eddie. As the audience could predict Eddie reports Marco and Rodolfo to immigration. From that point onwards we know it really is ‘the end’ for Eddie. There is no chance that he can rectify and of the damage he has done. Eddie returns home, trying to act casual. Catherine, Rodolfo and Marco have moved upstairs. Beatrice has an argument with Eddie about his previous actions and the issues of their physical relationship come into context briefly. Beatrice tells Eddie that it is his fault, ‘ what you did to her, in front of him†¦ ‘ Amazingly Catherine finally stands up for her self in front of Eddie-‘I’m gonna get married Eddie. ‘ Which adds to the expectations off disaster because Catherine has finally learnt to stand up to Eddie, she isn’t trying to please him, she is her own mind which is something Eddie wont have experienced before. At a last grasp at hope, Eddie says to Catherine, ‘If you wanna go out, like†¦ I mean I realize maybe I kept you home to much. ‘ And still continues to push with another excuse that Rodolfo isn’t right for her. The audience see this as a desperate last attempt from Eddie to keep Catherine. Immigration arrive for Marco and Rodolfo. Eddie pretends he knows nothing about the immigrants-‘who? We got nobody here. ‘ It doesn’t take long for Beatrice to realise that Eddie is behind it-‘My God, what did you do? ‘ As immigration take away Marco and Rodolfo Marco spits in Eddies face. This is the biggest insult for Eddie, he is very hurt-‘That’s the thanks I get? I take the blankets off my bed for yiz. You gonna apologize. ‘ Now this has happened the expectations in the audience are fairly certain-Marco is the stronger man, he is furious with Eddie, understandably-‘That one, he killed my children! That one stole food from my children. ‘ What is Marco going to do? The question that plays the mind until the very end. That is a wonderful way to create expectation. Not only did Marco spit in his face, but he humiliated him in front of the entire neighbourhood, and the entire neighbourhood turned their back on Eddie. Eddie feels as low as possible he has lost everything that meant any value to him. Alfieri now has to make Marco promise not to hurt Eddie until the hearing, this takes a lot of persuading, creating more expectations because it makes us wonder what Marco is feeling and about how hard it is for him to promise. Catherine makes a point about Eddie, how she feels about him-‘Nobody is going to talk to him again. ‘ When Marco does make the promise, he is expecting Eddie to apologize to him. It is Catherine and Rodolfo’s wedding day. Eddie is on his last straw. He tells B that if she goes to the wedding he will leave her-‘You walk out that door, you aint comin’ back. ‘ This leaves the audience wondering, what could happen to their marriage who is she going to choose? Whoever she does choose will be the others disaster. Catherine finally does stands up to Eddie, harshly, like a woman. She calls him a ‘rat’ and says ‘He bites people in their sleep! He comes when no body’s lookin’ and poisons decent people. In the garbage he belongs. ‘ A surprise in the audience and some tension because we wonder what will happen to Eddie now? Rodolfo comes and warns Eddie, he warns him that Marco is coming and suggests ways of solving the argument-Eddie ignores him bluntly. Marco calls Eddie out. At this point expectations peak, the audience are on the edge of their seats, desperate to know†¦ what will Marco do? Well after a few insults, their question is answered. As Eddie takes out a knife, our predictions are confirmed. Marco turns the knife. In the street in front of the neighbourhood, ‘He dies in her arms’ Neither Eddie nor Marco could give into their beliefs and priorities. But Marco, the stronger man, won the battle. At the end of ‘A view from the bridge’ Alfieri concludes, a very well though out ending, as he is the chorus in the play. This play is a classic tragedy, and in this essay I have written an account of the main events, and the expectations of disaster and tragedy the audience receive. In this play I think the best indication of disaster is when the telephone booth lights up. It answers most of the plays out standing questions up to that point. For example, How will Eddie cope? What will Eddie do? And so on. Overall I think this is a good play, it has been written with excellent use of ‘brooklynese’ language and Arthur Miller has used stage directions very well. It is a good storyline and gives the mind a lot to think about. A very thought provoking play.

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